Racial Profiling In Canada Criminology Essay

Racial Profiling In Canada Criminology Essay The public and the police encounters are challenged and stressful events. As a multicultural nation, Canada protects its core values such as the freedom from discrimination and arbitrary. However, activities like the investigation by the law-enforcement officials may make people vulnerable leading to allegation of racial profiling (Sean Kevin, 2006). Yet, the community widely recognizes the intelligence-law as a desirable matter of practice. With this regards, the police are encouraged to use criminal intelligence to eliminate the egalitarian ideals making the citizenry proud (Sean Kevin, 2006). A few years ago, the weight and height criterion on police officers recruitment and the training requirements were guided by physical strength and physiques, and their effectiveness at work rather than the color of the skin. Nonetheless, there are people who think that the skin color, non-legally relevant behavior, clothing can make them subject to unwanted treatments and if it comes from t he police it may qualify to be an infringement. The sense of the infringement in itself can escalate a response. Of course, some policies may lead to racial discrimination without any intention of racism. After careful consideration of Toronto Star investigative journalism report and a few other studies one should conclude that the Canadian Police Force have allegedly engaged in Racial Profiling, thereby demonstrating the negative effect on the public perception of police legitimacy. The Problem Canadian policing in terms of its affect on the publics perception of police legitimacy is a debate whose heart lies on the role of the police. The Canadian Police Force also bears the largest part to the responsibility of racial profiling (Melchers, 2006). In some instances, the police contacts with the public leave the sensitive members of the public bewildered. The quality of the police- public interaction has been intensified by the anti-racial profiling accusations. There are no new facts in the neologism racial profiling since there is a long history of biased policing in the findings and reported accusations. Racial profiling has garnered the attention of the media and public and thus the expression that the old wine is pouring into new bottles reinvigorating the problem. The Toronto Star articles Race and Crime The Toronto Star on October 19 2009 started publishing Race and Crime as series of articles that revolved around the theme of racial profiling. Justice is different for blacks and whites, Police target black drivers, and Blacks are targeted by Toronto police are treated harshly than whites are some of the singled out 2002 articles (Melchers, 2003). These subsequent stories claimed that the Toronto police were connected with racial profiling. The Star defined these acts of stopping people as the practice of stopping people for little reason other than their skin colour. The publication of the interviews with the black community leaders and advocates confirmed the presumption concerning reported charges of racial profiling and articulation of Scott Wortley, a Toronto criminologist (Melchers, 2006). The police representative responded to these acquisitions rejecting that they were singling out the black community. Alan Gold, a prominent lawyer and Edward Harvey a University of Toronto s ociologists were commissioned to conduct the Star independent review analysis by the Toronto Police Service. After their investigation the commission made a conclusion that what the Star analysis was Junk science and that the articles were completely unjustified, irresponsible and bogus slurs (Melchers, 2006). Additionally, the police union on behalf of its 7,200 members filed a $2.7 billion libel suit. To refute or support these claims judges, police officials, and attoneys further weighed to establish concrate contoversial statements. The Stars reported on police racial profiling after analyizing the Toronto Polices Criminal Information Processing System (CIPS) arrest data accessed by the Stars invetigative journalist team. The team was supervised by Dr. Michael Friendly, a director of York University Institute consulting service. The database that was analyzed constisted of more than 400,000 incidents involving arrests or tickets (Melchers, 2006). The identification information w as not included to protect the identity of individuals. Information identifying the incidence of arrest, charged or ticketed in broad category included other attributes such as gender, age, skin colour, the resideny status, and immigation. The data also included limited information housed in the CPIC such as the criminal histories of individuals, conditional release status, previous convictions, probation orders, and bail status (Melchers, 2003). Some of the police-recorded data in various instance was either missing or overrepesented. For instance, the least serious offenses were underreported and the more serious offences and known offenders were over-represented. Notice the CPIC only records information on police actions and incidences included information on arrest, ticket or charged persons. The main purpose of CIPS is to provide relevant information in the subsequent stages of the process of criminal justice. With this regards, no subsequent action can be taken on the recorded information if incomplete, the Star investigative journalist team faced this predicament in the course of their investigation. The Evaluation Over the past few years, the Toronto Star investigative report on Canadian police on racial profiling has attracted considerable attention. Canadian newspaper report on police racial profiling is practice that been highly politicized since the 70s (Melchers, 2003). For instance an earlier report conducted by the Royal Commission in 1992 on Donald Marshal indicated that nearly two-thirds of the total respondents felt that the police were discriminating the Canadian-African community. In reference to the interview with the Black Caribbean-Canadians who lived in Toronto City, Henry (1994) articulates that the police-public relations are filed with racial mistrust and suspicion practices (14). James (1998) also concludes in his examination that the encounters that the Black youth have with the police are characterized by harassment, suspicion, homogenization, and stereotyping which are indicative to police attitudes toward the Black youth (134). In other study conducted by Tanner and Wor tley (2002), the research approximated that more than 3,400 Black students in Torontos high schools attested having been stopped and questioned by police twice or more in a span of one year (369). They also claimed that they were subjected to physical searches. For the sake of this illustration, a keen interest must be developed on the articles that the Toronto Star initiated under the series race and crime with the claim that the Police Force of Toronto were engaging in racial profiling. The claims asserted the Black Torontonians were detained and treated worse than their White counterparts (Melchers, 2003). The citizens and the community leaders took the Stars report as a justification stating that racial profiling is an endemic in the crime and judicial system. The Star article series analyzed two independent data sets for two explicit reasons. First, there are the out-of-sight driving offenses where the driver is stopped without apparent reasons used in the assessment of the various patterns of traffic stops. Second, data sets pertaining to simple drug offenses were used in the assessment of the disparity of treatment of both Black and White drivers. In regard to the analysis of out-of-sight, the Star reported that from 19996 through to 2001, 4,696 out-of-sight offenses with noted skin colour were recorded identifying 33.6% of these as Black (Melchers, 2006). In comparison to the 1996 Canadian census, only 8.1% of Torontos total population was identified as Black therefore the Star reached to a conclusion that racial profiling existed. On the drug offenses, the Star investigative team examined more than 10,000 police depositions of the charged persons. For those involved, 23.6% were Black drivers and 63.8% involved the White counterparts, whereas the 76.5% of the latter were later released at the scene compared to the formers 61.8%. During the same period, 15.3% of the Black drivers were held for bail hearing as compared to the 7.3% of the White drivers (Melchers, 2006). The evidence was clear that the police treat Black Canadian worse than their White counterparts. Racial Profiling in Canadian courts The ambiguity of the phrase racial profiling has found itself favoured in the Canadian Courts. The jurisprudential term articulable cause in Canada equates to lack of reasonable grounds in the U.S., which is regarded as de jure evidence concerning racial profiling even when specific evidence on racial biasness is missing. Such an asymmetry has emerged as a consequence that has affected how the legal rights in regards to the ways the police powers are treated when applying the power of search, investigative detention, and seizure. This form of asymmetry makes the enforcement of law and public safety more difficult when it comes to the members of visible minority threatening to endanger their security, in the midst empowering criminal organizations (Melchers, 2006). There is a growing reception in the courts, the public, and the media on racial profiling allegations whose basis might be evidentiary weak or not completely fabricated. The two most cited sources of claims in Canadian expe rience are the Toronto Star investigative journalism report on race and crime conducted in year 2002 and the recently conducted data collection by Scot Wortley commissioned by Kingston Police Service. The two experiences are still undergoing peer reviews though they continue to circulate as grey literature. Today the two studies suffer from acute methodological problems and the research community have a consensuses view that the two are junk science. Subsequently, if any police work lack sufficient grounds or articulable cause then these cases are submitted as racial profiling when the subject of these actions is from a visible minority community. When the subject stopped by the police present physical and visible characteristics that may evoke stereotyping and the findings of the court report that the police were deficient and unlawfully detained the subject then the court can submit statements supporting the presence of racial profiling. The ant-profiling advocates have made suggestions that all police stops of the visible minority population including those at the street stops of pedestrians be taken as presumptively forms of detention of a higher standards. Many have argued that such a differential standard is crucial because it recognizes how the visible minority perceive things differently from others specifically when they relate with the police. Under looking the developments are advocates whose intentions are to drive an intermediary between the law enforcement authorities and the visible minorities which perhaps unknowingly can further the notion that the police are antagonistic and unsympathetic to the visible minorities. Fighting Racial Profiling In the law enforcement, the issue of racial profiling has purported systemic and widespread biasness. This issue in the public debate has a staying power which requires immediate response from the investigative authorities, the police, and other parties in the criminal justice system (Melchers, 2006). The culture of racial profiling can be dangerous to the public safety and the social cohesion. Furthermore, it has became clear that the conventional accountability mechanisms such as clear polices working in opposition to discrimination and biasness are no longer seen as sufficient as they used to be. Perhaps Stars article series were the eye opener depicting the intractable problems that still permeates the Canadian criminal and Judiciary system. Yet, the racial profiling in other countries such as the U.S. has added much heat and no enlightenment to the debate. Some of the effective tools that can control and suppress the perception of racial profiling policing are the establishing t ask forces that involve the community leaders, disciplinary policies, public statements, training, and written policies that work against racial profiling. These mitigation techniques are rather debatable than costly compared to the difficult flawed collection of evidence that can sometime contradict or even support positive-negative views. Conclusion In todays conformist age, it is very tempting for the progressives to be content with victories such as the official knowledge of Canadian racial profiling. Nonetheless, the realization that the government agencies such as the police force are operating in non-transgressive universe of meaning whose value on acknowledgement concerning issues of social justice are characterized by omissions, distortions and qualifications can lower these temptations (Melchers, 2006). The Stars series articles presented police racial profiling as ubiquitous and dysfunctional producing a report that was more cautious than crucial and more befuddling than enlightening and hence the title of these articles. Significantly, this paper has addressed the specific topic about Canadian policing in terms of its affect on the publics perception and the police legitimacy concerning racial profiling. The paper also presented general arguments about Canada, the presently constituted policies in courts, and the lack of guarantees to substantive anti-racism. It now goes without saying that appeasing measures such as training, establishing task forces that involve the community leaders, disciplinary policies, and public statements can help fight the problem of racial profiling. If these methods are followed, Canada can mollify the effect of racial profiling, lower political costs, and fuel the progressive transformation of major institutions such as the police force. From the point of view Stars investigative journalism report and other studies on race and racism, it is clear that the best racial policy is the one that provide appearance of change without a changing of the status quo.

Aldous Huxleys Brave New World Essay -- Aldous Huxley Brave New World

Aldous Huxley's Brave New World I stood in front of the television screen in horror and disbelief at 10 o'clock on September 11, 2001. Watching as the second plane struck the World Trade Center in a fiery ball of destruction, I thought for sure that this world as we know it was coming to an abrupt end. Seeing the first tower fall and then the second, with over 100 stories each now a pile of twisted steel and death made me want to vomit. In two short hours, the stability of America’s foundation became questionable. I wondered how such a terrorist attack could happen in this society. Then I began looking for warning signs. Ironically, all the warning America needed lies underneath the cover of Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World published in 1932. Huxley warned America prior to World War II and almost 70 years prior to the â€Å"Attack on America† that materialism, ethnocentrism, complacency, and racism could all lead to ultimate destruction. America chose to ignore him. Why were such attacks and wounds inflicted on America? Huxley recognized many years prior to pop culture that society in the US was incredibly materialistic and money oriented; maybe someday America would be otherwise. In Brave New World, Huxley puts great detail into the description of this futuristic society's material possessions. Their creator and God was â€Å"Ford,† named after the car manufacturer and father of mass production. â€Å"Ford† was an incredible symbol of wealth and power, similar to the automobile at the time of publication. Besides Ford, Huxley’s main female character Lenina Crowne takes great pride in her appearance and her outfits, especially her â€Å"silver-mounted green morocco-surrogate cartridge belt† (Huxley, 50). Many analysts in... ...el. I’m glad I don’t look like them.† I have been conditioned to hate too, in other ways, through media and society. Huxley warns us of a danger in this perspective. As we separate ourselves further and further apart within our country due to race and ethnicity, we will become more and more like Lenina, Bernard, and Henry. We become so focused on our own personal goals, only allowing socialization within the specific social class, that we lose understanding for the big picture. Eventually, due to our differences, some will be driven from their homes, forced to leave like John the Savage, alienated to the point of no return. How can America point blame onto another society when it harbors a similar hatred within the US borders? How could America let this predicted materialism, ethnocentrism, complacency, and racism happen? How could I miss the warning signs?

Operations Decision Essay

This file of ECO 550 Assignment 2 Operations Decision consists of: 1. Briefly describe the details of the fictitious business that you created for this assignment. 2. Assess the current environmental scan factor. Determine the factors that will have the greatest impact on plant operations and management’s decision to continue or discontinue operations. 3. Evaluate the financial performance of the company using the information provided in the scenario. Consider all the drivers of performance, such as company profit or loss for both the short term and long term. Be sure to show the calculations that helped you reach your conclusions. 4. Recommend how the company can improve its profitability. Then develop a brief plan to implement the recommendations. 5. Assess the circumstances in which the company should discontinue operations. Provide a rationale with your response. Economics – General Economics Assignment 2 â€Å"Operations Decision† Assume you have been hired as a managing consultant by a company to offer some advice that will help it make a decision as to whether it should shut down completely or continue its operations. It currently uses 100 workers to produce 6,000 units of output per month (working 20 days / month). The daily wage (per worker) is $70, and the price of the firm’s output is $32. The cost of other variable inputs is $2,000 per day. You are told that the firm’s fixed cost is â€Å"high enough† so that the firm’s total costs exceed its total revenue. The marginal cost of the last unit is $30. (Ch 7 8 to solve)  This assignment allows you to determine the specific details about this fictitious company in order to conduct an environmental scan of this company.   Write a three to four (4-5) page paper in which you: Briefly describe the details of the fictitious business that you created for this assig†¦ Follow the link to get tutorial – https://bitly.com/12AXeqz When your classes begin, you have to get acquainted with your instructors. Make sure that you are aware of their office locations, hours of availability and how else to contact them. You must develop good relationships with your professors so that you will feel comfortable talking with them if you need help or an exception on a due date. Economics – General Economics Assignment 2 â€Å"Operations Decision† Assume you have been hired as a managing consultant by a company to offer some advice that will help it make a decision as to whether it should shut down completely or continue its operations. It currently uses 100 workers to produce 6,000 units of output per month (working 20 days / month). The daily wage (per worker) is $70, and the price of the firm’s output is $32. The cost of other variable inputs is $2,000 per day. You are told that the firm’s fixed cost is â€Å"high enough† so that the firm’s total costs exceed its total revenue. The marginal cost of the last unit is $30. (Ch 7 8 to solve)  This assignment allows you to determine the specific details about this fictitious company in order to conduct an environmental scan of this company.   Write a three to four (4-5) page paper in which you: Briefly describe the details of the fictitious business that you created for this assignment. Assess the current environmental scan factors that are relevant to the decision making process. Determine the factors that will have the greatest impact on plant operations and management’s decision to continue or discontinue operations. Provide a rationale for your  determination. Evaluate the financial performance of the company using the information provided in the scenario. Consider all the key drivers of performance, such as company profit or loss for both the short term and long term and how each factor influences managerial decisions. Be sure to show the calculations that helped you reach your conclusions. Recommend how the company can improve its profitability to deliver more value to its stakeholders. Then, develop a brief plan to implement the recommendations. Assess the circumstances in which the company should discontinue operations and how management should react when c onfronted with these circumstances. Provide a rationale with your response.

The Effect Of Body Image On Women s Self Perceptions And...

Body image is a major concern in women’s self-perceptions and feelings about body satisfaction and physical appearance. Individuals are at higher risk to experience negative body image issues if they hold beliefs and cognitions about their physical appearance, regardless of body mass (Butters Cash, 1987). Over weight and appearance related issues often surfaces early in females development, and continues throughout their lifespan. The importance of physical appearance is emphasized and reinforced early in most girls development. Often times, body image becomes a problem when females go through puberty (Striegel-Moore Franko, 2002). In addition, most girls who express a desire to be thinner are within the normal weight range for females their age (Striegel-Moore et all). Concerns with the development of disordered eating is of high importance due to the fact that body dissatisfaction can lead to anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. There has been a increasing number of wom en who have reported disturbed body image and engaged in dieting. there has been a significant level of concern about the increasing incidence of eating disorders and this is a major concern in America (Polivy Herman, 2002). The media is a form of mass communication that has a great effect on the values, beliefs and actions of many human beings around the world. Whether there is information coming from different sources of media such as ads, commercials, or magazines, all types of mediaShow MoreRelatedThe Psychological Effects of Going Through Cosmetic Surgery1486 Words   |  6 Pagespopular age range of cosmetic surgeries performed is 40 to 54 years old. Most of us are self conscious about how we will appear in the future. Our self conscious feelings towards our body image affects us psychologically and psychosocially by our own body-self image, sexual relationships, social interactions esteem and self worth. 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Leadership And Management Leadership - 835 Words

Leadership Verses Management The world is made up of leaders and managers. There are leaders and managers in every aspect of life. In many instances leadership and management are referred to as being the same. This paper will evaluate the differences between leadership and management. In today s organizations, leaders and managers are needed in order to operate successfully. Even though managers and leaders are different, they both have many similarities that will be discussed in this paper. Roles of Leadership and Management The leadership role is very important in any organization. Leaders are there to help influence individuals or groups in achieve the common goals of the organization. Leaders need to have a variety of characteristics to ensure that the job is done efficiently and effectively as possible. Leaders must be able to coach the people they are leading. They should also be confident in their abilities to lead. On the other hand managers are like a mirror of a leader. 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Eth 125 Quiz - 2636 Words

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Frederick the Great free essay sample

Period Final Copy Frederick the Great In Europe, the eighteenth century was a period of intellectual, social, and political development. It was not the time of absolute rulers anymore but it is becoming a time of Enlightened Despots, monarchs who rules with principles of enlightenment rather than absolute monarchy. Frederick the Great was the first Enlightened Despot of Prussia, along with the other rising Enlightened Despot of the time, Maria Theresa . Frederick the Great was one of the most influential kings in European history through his role in modernizing the culture of Prussia, in winning the War of Austrian Succession and in making domestic reforms that helped the people under Prussian rule. Frederick the Great’s childhood was spent in rigorous military training and education and constant abuse from his father. Frederick the Great was born January 24, 1712 in Berlin, Prussia. The abuse Frederick suffered from by the hands of his father was both physical and emotional. Frederick the Great loved music and literature which caused for his father to be disappointed that his son did not like war, as he did. Throughout his entire childhood his father, Frederick William I would do retched things to him such as hit and spit on him when he did not approve of what his son had done. When Frederick was a teenager he decided to escape his torment by his father with his friend Katte. When Frederick’s father discovered his plan he thought it was a conspiracy on his life and put Frederick on house arrest and forced him to watch the execution of his best friend, Katte, as a punishment for attempting to leave Prussia. He told himself that when it was his turn on the throne that he would not be a ruler like his father. Although he faced many appalling things he his childhood they all lead to him being a strong king and ingenious military mind. Frederick the Great made Prussia a more modernized country by adopting certain characteristics from the French culture. He made reforms to the Prussian government which ultimately strengthened it he said that â€Å" a well conducted government must have an underlying concept so well integrated that it could be likened to a system of philosophy. All actions taken must be well reasoned, and all financial, political and military matters must flow towards one goal, which is the strengthening and the furthering of its power†. Frederick created a modern bureaucracy. A modern Bureaucracy is a group of specifically non-elected officials within a government or other institution that implements the rules, laws, ideas, and functions of their institution. Frederick exemplifies that by having himself as the head of the nation and state and only having certain merit officials making the government decisions. In addition Frederick expanded on education with use of more literature and philosophy and he reformed his court. Although his court and government resembled a barrack and they were ran with military precision. Even though he felt strongly against it serfdom due to his not wanting to affect the nobles and ultimately the economy of Prussia. Frederick as well encouraged religious tolerance and partitioned Poland even though he was a strong Calvinist. Frederick was a patron of the arts a philosophy, but most specifically partitioned Voltaire. The socially modernizing of Prussia was one of his main accomplishments. Frederick the Great was known as great military leader. His army was a strong and disciplined one. He was the military commander in the War of Austrian Succession. The war began because Frederick did not like the fact that a woman was the leader of Austria. Aware of Austria’s economic and military weakness he decided that it was time to expand his rule and the territory of Prussia southward into Silesia. Silesia was quite advanced in industry, rich in agriculture and mineral wealth, and it was Protestant. Frederick wanted to be known as a powerful monarch and wanted to show that a woman was not fit to rule a country. Frederick II was also Protestant and having another city under his control would only make his country stronger as he aspires to do. During the War of Austrian Succession Prussia was allied with Bavaria, Spain, and France against Austria, Great Britain, Netherlands, and Russia. When the war was over, Prussia was victorious and gained control of Silesia. Maria Theresa, the Queen of Austria was infuriated that Silesia had been taken from her. Maria Theresa wanted Silesia back because she thought that the land was rightfully hers and she believed that it should be Catholic; this lead to the Seven Years War. This time Frederick was not the aggressor. He did not want the war, but he believed that in order to defend himself he should make the first move. Prussia and France invaded Austria and Bohemia but the forces fell apart because of the lack of unity of purpose and the capability of the military. Due to the failure of the invasion Austria temporarily neutralized Prussia. Frederick the Great also became involved in the War of the Bavarian Succession from 1778-1789. The War of Bavarian Succession was an opposition caused by Frederick the Great’s blockade of Joseph II of Austria to obtain Bavaria. After losing Silesia to the Prussia in the 1740s, the Austrian emperor  Joseph II   and his chancellor Wenzel Anton, Prince von Kaunitz, wished to take Bavaria in order to restore Austria’s position in Germany. When the Bavarian electoral line of the Wittelsbachs stopped because of death of Maximilian Joseph in , 1777, a treaty was signed by his successor,  Charles Theodore, the  Elector Palatine, surrendering Lower Bavaria and the kingship of Mindelheim to Austria. However,  Frederick the Great   declared war on July 3, 1778, supporting the claims made by Charles, Duke of Zweibrucken. on Bavaria. Austria’s ally France refused to assist in the war, and Frederick with Saxony as his ally entered Bohemia, where he was pitted against by an imperial army led by the Emperor. There was little fighting, because each force was concerned with cutting its opponent’s communications and denying it supplies like potatoes. That is why the war is most commonly referred to as the â€Å"potato war† (Kartoffelkrieg). Frederick the Great issued many domestic reforms that modernized Prussia and built it up from the inside out. He continued the work of his father and grandfather to consolidate power by giving the princes a palace in the government bureaucracy. He established religious toleration he even built a Roman Catholic Cathedral in Berlin. Frederick granted individuals protection from the law by speeding up the legal process; abolished torture of prisoners claiming that torturing before execution was â€Å"†¦a horrible and very useless cruelty. However, he wholeheartedly believed in whipping soldiers, as a measure to prevent desertion, and made sentences of death legal only with his personal permission, as in cases of treason and murder. He also equalized the status of people under Prussia’s law. To ensure the correct judgments were made, all of Prussian judges were educated and the courts gained a reputation as the most honest in Europe. These are the reforms that modernized Pru ssia and are some of Frederick the Great’s accomplishments. Frederick’s accomplishments as king other than modernizing Prussia were expanding its territory. He did this through war, mainly the War of Austrian Succession he was also involved in the Seven Years War, and the War of Bavarian Succession. He also established Prussia as a major power in Europe. His developed his government as a modern bureaucracy He introduced law reforms that ended torturing prisoners and equalized the status of everyone under Prussia’s law and he highly opposed serfdom but realized their importance to the economy of a nation. He granted religious freedom, he was a patron of the arts and of philosophy and he was also a partition of Poland. Frederick was known for having fair and highly educated judges and the courts gained an outstanding reputation of being the most honest courts in all of Europe. Some of his failures were, not succeeding to get Pomerania from Sweden and his foreign policy theme was constantly changing. Frederick the Great was an influential king in European history through his role in modernizing the culture of Prussia, in winning the War of Austrian Succession and gaining Austrian territory and in making domestic reforms that helped the people under Prussian rule in the end modernized Prussia . Works Cited: Chris Butler. â€Å"The Rise of the Modern State in Enlightenment Europe† [emailprotected] com 2007. Web. 12. Dec. 2012 http://www. flowofhistory. com/units/west/15/FC101 David W. Koeller. â€Å"Frederick II (The Great) of Prussia Political Testament† 2005. Web. 12 Dec. 2012 http://www. thenagain. info/Classes/Sources/Frederick%20the%20Great. htmll Frederick II. Encyclop? dia Britannica. Encyclop? dia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. , 2012. Web. 14Nov. 2012 â€Å"Frederick II, the Great†. American Military University. 2008. Web. 4 Nov. 2012 http://enlightenment-revolution. org/index. php/Frederick_II,_the_Great Gaines, James R.. 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